The Neutrality Crisis

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In spring 1793, a merchant ship called the Little Sarah sailed into Philadelphia GPE on what should have been a routine trip. There, it filled its decks with corn and flour before taking off back towards Kingstown, Jamaica GPE, where its cargo would be sold. But the brig would not get far. Shortly after leaving Philadelphia GPE, in the Cape of Delaware LOC, a French NORP ship named the Umbuscadsidled up beside it and demanded to board. The Umbuscad knew something the little Sarah PRODUCT didn't. Less than two months before, France had declared war on Great Britain GPE. The Little Sarah flew under a British flag. That meant it was a prime target for French privateers. Who would seize the ship, sell off its cargo, and repurpose the merchantvessel into a ship of war? The French overtook the British ship and towed the Little Sarah back into Philadelphia GPE. Its British flag was flipped upside down. Crowds cheered the arrival of the captured prize. Its crew replaced the corn and flour with 14 cannons. The Little Sarah PRODUCT was now a privateer.Soon, it would sail out from Philadelphia with an American crew to hunt down other British ships. The Little Sarah PRODUCT was just the last in a series of victories on the sea against the British, all led by the French NORP minister known as Citizen Jeanné. Young, energetic, and charismatic, Jeanne was a phenomenon in the States GPE. He recruited American fighters to invade Spanish NORP Floridaand used American ports to launch attacks on British ships. The little Sarah may have been Jeanne PERSON's latest victory, but for Washington GPE, it was the last straw. The brash Frenchman NORP threatened to drag the United States into a European NORP war. Refused the French, and Washington GPE risked a revolution of his own.Defy the British, and the American NORP experiment would be over before it had a chance to begin. Americans NORP were split. Thomas Jefferson called for Washington to honor the treaty of alliance between France and the United States GPE. Alexander Hamilton feared what a British embargo could do to American NORP trade and began to consolidate federalist support for the dissolution of the treaty. Here, caught between two cabinet members, two mighty countries, and his own nation divided,President George Washington PERSON faced a critical decision.

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Shall a proclamation issue for the purpose of preventing interferences of the citizens of the United States in the war between France and Great Britain GPE. Shall it contain a declaration of neutrality or not? What shall it contain?

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This is Inventing the Presidency WORK_OF_ART.

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Episode 5, the neutrality crisis.

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In 1789, the same year that Washington GPE became president, France GPE underwent a radical shift of its own. The outbreak of the French Revolution EVENT forced King Louis XVIth to submit to a constitutional monarchy. Early on, the French Revolution enjoyed wide support from Americans NORP. One of the most prominent French allies during the American Revolution,the Marquis de Lafayette, took a prominent role in the French Revolution EVENT as well. After the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, Lafayette presented the key to the Bastille to Washington GPE. That key is still on display at Mount Vernon FAC today and has become a powerful symbol of the historic friendship between the United States and France GPE. But the constitutional monarchy would not last.In 1792, the king would be deposed and France GPE became a republic. The rise of Republican France, however, did not mean the end of the French Revolution EVENT. The French had been the United States GPE most important ally during the revolution, and many Americans cheered on the French NORP attempt to launch their own revolution. Other European NORP nations reacted with alarm. They feared that the revolution would spill out into their borders. Austria and Prussia declared war against revolutionary France GPE.In 1793, the revolution took a turn.

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March 18th, 1793, the diary or Loudoun's Register ORG. By this day's mail, death of Louis XVIth PERSON. The Post brought this day a certainty of the execution of the King of France on the 21st January last, between 10 and 11 o'clock of the day. As soon as the execution was affected, three huzzas were given by the spectators, hats thrown the air, and it is said the executioners and many near the scaffolddipped their buttons in the king's blood as marks of victory and triumph.

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Some Americans celebrated the death of the French NORP king, the death of a tyrant as they saw it. Others were horrified by the act. The Americans NORP had overthrown their king to be sure, but they had not publicly executed him and shown his severed head to the crowds. Many were scandalized by the continued imprisonment and eventual execution of his queen, Marie Antoinette PERSON, out of the belief that she, as a woman and a mother, ought to have been spared. Ten days after the death of Louis XVIth PERSON,France declared war on Britain, the Netherlands, and Spain. By the time news reached the United States GPE, nearly all of Europe LOC was embroiled in war. The United States may have been an ocean away from the trouble, but it quickly found itself entwined within the war in Europe LOC. Here is Sandra Motz, author of Navigating Neutrality WORK_OF_ART.

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January, February 1793, the United States gets word that France and Britain GPE are at war. Once again, they had a series of these imperial wars, and this is just the latest round. Of course, we're in a very different position now. We're no longer colonies.We're no longer part of the British Empire GPE. We've just won our American Revolution with France GPE's help. We also still have very strong ties to Britain GPE, culturally, economically, all of that. So both of these countries see the United States GPE as potentially an ally for either side. France GPE saying, hey, we helped with your war. Why don't you help with ours? Britain GPE saying, hey, we helped with your war. Why don't you helpwith ours? Britain saying, hey, you colonists, we solve strong ties. Washington GPE very smartly realizes this would be a disaster for us to get involved in this. One, it's an imperial war. It's a continental war. It's a imperialistic. It has absolutely nothing to do with the United States. And secondly, we would just be pawns. He even says that the cost to us would be great and the benefits, the results would be terrible. And especially given that we're only four or five years into the new constitution, this would just be a disastrous mistake.So the idea is to tamper expectations and to also warn American NORP citizens stay out of this thing.

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At this point in time, Washington GPE was struggling to maintain control in both the Northwest territories and western Pennsylvania GPE. The small U.S. Army was occupied in the Northwest War at this time, and there was no U.S. Navy ORG. To fall into an international transatlantic war could topple the young nation, especially against the might of the British Navy ORG, which was at that point the strongest in the world.Here is Lindsay Trevensky, presidential historian and author of The Cabinet WORK_OF_ART.

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When France declared war on Great Britain in February of 1793, Washington immediately, as soon as he heard the news in April, he knew that the nation had no business getting into this war. The country was just really beginning to recover from the revolution economically, environmentally, physically, mentally, financially, and it had no business getting in a war that was going to wreck all of those things. Even if it had wanted to fight, the nation had no army or navy, so it had nothing to fight with. So this was really not a complicated answer. However, what neutrality looked like was actually amuch more complex problem for a couple of reasons. First, in 1778, when the United States GPE had signed a treaty of Imedi in commerce and a treaty of defense with France GPE, the defense treaty obligated both sides to come to each other's aid if they were attacked. So if France GPE was attacked in theory by Great Britain, the United States would need to come to France GPE's aid. So the question here was, well, was France GPE attacked if France was the one that declared war? That was one question that sort of complicated matters and whether it obligated the United States to come to France GPE's aid.The second question is, what is neutral behavior? And this particularly is important around American NORP ports. At a time when commerce and trade is mostly taking place on the high seas, people are often bringing their ships in and out of American ports and Caribbean ports and French ports and British ports. And sometimes it's clear that they have no role in the war. Maybe they're just trading food and clothing. But other times it's not as clear. Are they trading arms?Are they trading ammunitions? Are they trading things like wood that can be used to repair ships that are used to fight naval battles? There are a lot of things that are fuzzy, a lot of details that are complicated.And that was really Washington GPE's concern is how do we define what

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neutrality is? And then how do we enforce it? Because that also had never been done. It was untested. It was unclear what laws were in play, what courts would hear that decision, who would enforce a punishment? These were all decisions and questions that had to be answered. And it was

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kind of up to Washington GPE to do so. For a brief period, the distance of the ocean afforded Washington some time to plan, but his respite would be quickly cut short. Not long after news broke about the execution, on April 8, 1793, a charismatic French emissary arrived in Charleston, South Carolina GPE. His name was Edmund Charles Jeannet PERSON. He was young and idealistic.His first diplomatic post had been to the court of Catherine the Great in Russia GPE, but his revolutionary zeal proved too controversial, and he was eventually deported. But the government saw great promise in the idealistic, charismatic Jeunet PERSON. Who could speak English LANGUAGE fluently? Here is one description of Jeanne, written by John Steele to Alexander Hamilton PERSON.

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You have heard much of this citizen, no doubt, and therefore anything of him from me will seem superfluous. But as I am writing of the man that we are all afraid of, permit me to say that he has a good person, fine, ruddy complexion, is quite active and seems always in a bustle, more like a busy man than a man of business.His system is, I think, to laugh us into the war if he can.

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As minister of the new government of France, Jeannes was supposed to present himself directly to President Washington GPE. But instead of going directly to Philadelphia GPE, he took the scenic route through South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, and Pennsylvania GPE. All along the way, he was actively recruiting Americans to join the war on the side of France GPE. Jeanne's instructions from France GPE were, to put it modestly, ambitious. The French wanted an advance of nearly three million dollars on the American debt to France GPE from the war.They called for a grandiose new national pact between the United States and revolutionary France GPE, which would pave the way for the spread of republicanism to Spanish, Louisiana, and British Canada, and give American and French NORP merchants equal footing. They also authorized Jeunet, with or without American NORP permission, to use the United States as a base to commission privateers in the ongoing war against Great Britain GPE and its allies. But Jeunay PERSON made some crucial missteps.Within days of his arrival in South Carolina GPE, Jeanne had already commissioned four American NORP privateers. Sandra Motes explains the use of privateers in this period.

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Everyone thinks piracy is the big thing in this age. It's not. Privatarian is because it's licensed piracy. It's you've been given a commission by a government to attack enemy ships on behalf of that government. So what you do is the state, whether it's the king of Britain or the queen of Scotland GPE or whatever, has commissions that they give. And they're known as letters of mark.And basically what it does is it gives you, as a ship captain, a license to privateer on behalf of the British government, the American NORP government, whoever has authorized that commission. And it lays out the terms. You outfit your ship, you are acting basically as on behalf of the British Navy ORG or the French Navy. And anything you collect, you basically split on behalf of the British Navy or the French Navy ORG. And anything you collect, you basically split the share, the British government, the French NORP government gets a share,and then you get to collect a share. And then you take the, you know, you literally go and jump on someone else's ship, capture the ship, take that ship in its belongings into port, and then basically cash out. And then the British government, if you're working for them, they'll take their cut. And then you as the ship captain get your cut and then you give whatever's left to your crew. And as you can see, the more ships you capture as a privateer, the more lucrative it is. It's actually an industry to take regular merchant ships and turn them into warships.So put turrets on them, put cannon. A regular merchant ship only requires about seven or ten guys to run. A privateer requires about 100 men because you've got to keep the ship moving, you've got to keep it afloat, and you've got to keep the war part going.

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The use of American ships to capture British ones could potentially convince the British that the Americans had joined the conflict on the French NORP side. If that happened, not only would trade with Britain's cease, but the British would have cause to seize American NORP vessels, and that could mean huge economic losses. But support for the French Revolution was high in the United States GPE.Everywhere he went, Jeannet was cheered on by crowds of American NORP supporters. Recall how Washington blamed the Democratic Republican NORP societies for riling up support for the Whiskey Rebellion EVENT. Well, these same societies hosted grand receptions for Jeanne PERSON as well. Washington even blamed Jeanne PERSON for the formation of such societies.

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These things were evidently intended to disquiet the public mind. But I hope and trust they will work their own cure, especially when it is known more generally than it is that the Democratic Society ORG of this place were instituted by Mr. Jeney for the express purpose of dissension and to draw a line between the people and the government,after he found the officers the latter would not yield to the hostile measures in which he wanted to embroil this country.

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Jeanne's popularity and the rising support for the French Revolution worried Washington GPE. He quickly assembled his cabinet to debate their options on an official position of neutrality in the European NORP war. Once again, Hamilton and Jefferson PERSON found themselves at odds.Hamilton wanted to protect American NORP commercial interests by adhering to a policy of neutrality. Jefferson PERSON, on the other hand, believe that such a policy of neutrality. Jefferson, on the other hand, believe that such a policy was a violation of previous treaties between the United States and France GPE, in which the United States promised to come to the aid of France GPE in the war.While he was not eager to launch the United States GPE into a war, he did not think the executive had the right to forbid citizens from supporting the French Revolution EVENT. It was up to Washington to mediate between these two strong personalities.

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Washington GPE, I think, is just his tremendous political skills. Not only is he a big idea person, I think that's something we forget about, he's also a really skilled political negotiator. And what he realizes is this proclamation is not going to be successful unless he has the full backing of his cabinet.And of course, the cabinet consists of the famous rivals, Hamilton and Jefferson PERSON, who are the two leading members, and then Henry Knox PERSON, his secretary of war, and then Edmund Randolph PERSON. And before they even sit down to start having their meetings, Washington writes to both Hamilton and Jefferson PERSON basically saying to each of them, I expect you guys to both be constructive and productive in these meetings. We need to work together and all of that. So it gives them a warning at the outset. And then what he very smartly does is he lays out theparameters of we want to be neutral, we don't want to get involved in this war, let's draft a document, all of you guys give you your thoughts on the matter. And so these guys are like over-eager graduate students. You know, Hamilton writes like a 20-page report. Jefferson PERSON's like 15. Randolph's like 10 pages. But this is really smart because what Washington GPE does is every idea you've ever had about neutrality, I want to hear about it, get it out on the table, and we'll come up with a compromise document on neutrality. And so that's how they go about doing it, which is really, really smart.Jefferson PERSON doesn't want the word neutrality in the neutrality proclamation. So it's actually just called the proclamation of 1793.

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The cabinet arrived at a consensus. Washington would announce a policy of neutrality in the European NORP war, but that Washington would receive Jeunet as a minister of France GPE. On April 22, 1793, the proclamation was issued.

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The duty and interest of the United States GPE require that they should with sincerity and good faith adopt and pursue a conduct friendly and impartial towards the belligerent powers. I have therefore thought fit by these presents to declare the disposition of the United States to observe the conduct aforesaid towards those powers respectively, and to exhort and warn the citizens of the United States GPE carefully to avoid all acts and proceedings whatsoever, which may in any mannertend to contravene such disposition.

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Neutrality means that during wartime, we don't get involved in a war, in this case, between Britain and France GPE, even though we have connections to both of them. And then instead, we say, we'll remain friendly with both of you, we'll have free trade with both of you, we'll be friendly, but our ships are not going to be participating, our citizens, our government's not going to formally ally. We're not going to give you any material support or political support for your war. We're going to be friendly and we hope you respect our ships on the seas and that they enjoy free trade. This comes out of alarger concept, which I won't get too far in the weeds here, but the idea that free ships make for free goods. So if American NORP ship is a neutral ship, it shouldn't be fair game to be attacked. Whereas if France and Britain GPE are at war, they're going to be attacking each other's ships, whether they're cargo or military ships. So the whole idea behind neutrality is to allow America to stay in business while France and Britain GPE are at war without us getting politically entangled in the war. It's not passivity. It's not isolationism.It means we stay neutral in wart time. We're friendly with everyone.

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Jeanné finally arrived in Philadelphia just a few weeks later. In some respects, his mission had just taken a catastrophic turn. Despite his success in charming Americans NORP, the Washington GPE administration nipped his recruitment efforts before he even had a chance to meet formally with the president. But Jeanne was not yet done in the United States GPE.On May 17, 1793, his arrival in the city was celebrated by a crowd of supporters outside his hotel. There was some debate about how large the crowd was. Hamilton said 600 people. Jefferson said a thousand. Jeanne would later recall 6,000 supporters in the streets.And Adams, with some exaggeration, would claim in 1813 that...

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You certainly never felt the terrorism excited by Jeannet PERSON in 1793 when 10,000 people in the streets of Philadelphia GPE, day after day, threatened to drag Washington GPE out of his house and effect a revolution in the government, or compel it to declare war in favor of the French Revolution and against England GPE.

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The crowds never likely grew above a thousand. But regardless, Adams PERSON' account reveals the anxiety stirred up by Jeunet PERSON's powerful rhetoric. The neutrality proclamation had failed to stifle support for the French Revolution EVENT. But Jeunet PERSON had grown bold. Jeanne believed that Washington was being led astray by the Federalist anti-French NORP members of his cabinet, specifically Hamilton PERSON.Jeanne wrote letter after letter to Jefferson and French NORP, claiming that treaties between France and the United States entitled him to commission privateers in American NORP ports. Jefferson was initially sympathetic to Jeunay, but over time, he grew frustrated with Jeanne PERSON's refusal to comply with his directions. He warned him to stay put for the time being and forbid him from continuing to use American ports to outfit new privateers. Here is Lindsay Trevensky PERSON again.

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Initially, Jefferson had been very supportive of Jeannay. He had wanted to give the Jeunay PERSON the benefit of the doubt. He had warned Jeannay PERSON repeatedly about the neutrality proclamation and asked him to stop with privateers and ask him to cease that behavior. Hamilton PERSON was very distrustful of the situation. He was quick to want to request Jeanne's recall from France GPE, and they battled over these issues constantly in cabinet meetings. There was a final sort of throwdown, for lack of a better word, in July of 1793, when it became clear that Jeunay PERSON was going to continue churning outthese privateers regardless of what they said. When Jefferson PERSON finally confronted the French minister about these issues, Jeanne threatened to look in people to go above Washington GPE's head and to appeal directly to American NORP citizens. And this was a huge insult. It was a grave insult to American NORP sovereignty, to American diplomacy, to the president's authority over diplomacy.

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One last act of defiance sealed Jeunay's fate. In July, Jeanne captured a British ship called The Little Sarah PRODUCT. Even after Jefferson wrote Jeunay forbidding him from continuing to use American NORP ports to outfit new privateers, Jeanne relaunched the ship as La Petit Democrat PRODUCT. Washington GPE was outraged. He immediately wrote to Jefferson PERSON,

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demanding a solution.

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What is to be done in the case of little Sarah now at Chester GPE?

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Is the Minister of the French Republic to set the acts of this government a defiance with impunity? And then threaten the executive with an appeal to the people. Oh, what the world must think of such conduct, and of the government of the U-States and submitting to it. These are serious questions, circumstances press, for decision.And as you've had time to consider them, upon me, they have come unexpected. I wish to receive your opinion upon them, even before tomorrow. For the vessel may then be gone.

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Washington GPE called his cabinet together once more. Washington wanted Jeney gone. Even Jefferson PERSON, who had sympathized with Jeanne's cause, was losing his cool. In a letter to James Madison PERSON, he wrote,

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Never, in my opinion, was so calamitous an appointment made as that of the present minister of France GPE here. Hot-headed, all imagination, no judgment, passionate, disrespectful, and even indecent towards the president in his written as well as verbal communications, talking of appeals from him to Congress ORG, from them to the people, urging the most unreasonable and groundless propositions and in the most dictatorial style. If ever it should be necessary to lay his communications before Congress ORG or the public, they will incite a universal indignation.He renders my position immensely difficult.

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Jefferson worried that Jeanne's actions would harm the French NORP cause amongst Americans and ultimately increase support for Washington GPE's federalist policies. It was not that Jefferson PERSON disagreed with Jeanne's politics. On the contrary, Jefferson remained critical of the neutrality proclamation. He believed that it should have been the Senate ORG's authority, not the presidents, to issue such a verdict, and he privately wanted the United States to support the French Revolution EVENT,although he did not want open war with Britain GPE. The Genet PERSON affair was now causing open conflict within Washington GPE's cabinet. Jefferson and Hamilton PERSON, who had always been at odds, escalated their fighting. By some Hamilton PERSON, who had always been at odds, escalated their fighting. By some accounts, they were openly arguing in every cabinet meeting. Their oppositionwould soon spill out into the public sphere. Hamilton PERSON sought to defend what he saw as the only thing protecting American NORP trade and peace. Writing for newspapers, he wrote.

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The inquiry then is, what department of the government of the United States GPE is the proper one to make a declaration of neutrality in the cases in which the engagements of the nation permit and its interests require such a declaration? A correct and well-informed mind will discern at once of the nation permit and its interests require such a declaration.A correct and well-informed mind will discern at once that it can belong neither to the legislature nor judicial department and of course must belong to the executive.

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Hamilton would go on to write seven total essays under the name Pacificus ORG, fearing that Hamilton PERSON's well-written essays would become public opinion if left unchallenged, Jefferson wrote to James Madison PERSON, urging him to respond.

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For God's sake, my dear sir, take up your pen. Select the most striking heresies and cut him to pieces in the face of the public. There is nobody else who can and will enter the lists with him.

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And take up the pen, Madison PERSON did. Beginning in August 1793, Madison wrote a series of five essays under the name Helvidius PERSON. Madison tackled the specific claims posed by Hamilton PERSON and deconstructed them.

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If we consult for a moment the nature and operation of the two powers to declare war and make treaties, it will be impossible not to see that they can never fall within a proper definition of executive powers. The natural province of the executive magistrate is to execute laws, as that of the legislature to make laws. All of his acts, therefore, properly executive, must presuppose the existence of the

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laws to be executed. This debate swirled around what would become an important precedent for the presidency. Would the executive branch be responsible for dictating the nation's foreign affairs? Or did that power belong exclusively to the legislative branch? With his cabinet divided, Washington GPE proceeded with caution. He knew that for the United States GPE to survive, they needed to proceed on a policy of neutrality.But not even he could predict what would happen next. For in August, 1793, doctors declared the grim and frightening truth that for the first time in 30 years, yellow fever had returned to Philadelphia GPE.

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Are you enjoying inventing the presidency? Do you want to help other listeners find our show and learn about early American NORP history? Then consider leaving us a review on your favorite podcast app. We would love to hear your thoughts about our podcast. From everyone here at the George Washington Presidential Library FAC at Mount Vernon FAC, thanks for listening. Throughout 1793, while Jeannay rallied support and the Americans NORP struggled to remain neutral.

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There were big changes going on in France GPE, too. Jeanne was sent by a government known as the Girondens PERSON, but by the time Washington requested his recall in August, a new regime was in power, the Jacobins, and they were none too pleased with Jeanne's actions in the United States GPE. The Jacquesabins saw Jeanne's contempt for the American NORP government as threatening future support, and Jeanne PERSON soon became the target of conspiracies in his native country.One French NORP pamphlet writer accused Jeanne of being a British agent bent on destroying American French unity. They even accused him of conspiring to help the British drive the French out of the West Indies GPE. This last accusation must have hit hard for the French NORP. There was at this time another nation at war with France GPE. In 1791, the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution would lead to a 13-year struggle for independence from France GPE. Led by Toussaint-Liverture PERSON, a keen military leader who had been enslaved himself,Haiti would become the first country to be founded by formerly enslaved people. Haiti was, of course, much closer geographically to the United States than France GPE. The planter class, primarily made up of white men, pleaded to the United States GPE for assistance, and Hamilton advanced $40,000 to the French NORP minister for assistance to be paid out of the American debt to the French NORP. Here is Ramin Ganeshram PERSON, journalist, food historian,an executive director of the Westport Museum for History and Culture ORG.

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The revolution in Haiti GPE was an uprising of enslaved people against the French NORP planter class who enslaved them. And what's important about this is that it was a successful revolution. The revolution took place. The planter class was driven out of Haiti in favor of self-rule by now free people of African NORP descent. What's important to understand about this is this was an absolutely terrifying situation for men like Washingtonand other enslavers in the United States GPE. Uphrisings, revolts among the slave people in the Caribbean did happen from the 17th century, and they would have known about it, particularly in the West Indies, there was revolt after revolt. They were always put down at great expense to the African NORP community in terms of loss of life and punishment, but they continued. So there was this constant fear amongst, particularly the planter class in America GPE, of the same thing happening here. So when it happened inHaiti and it succeeded, this struck terror into the hearts of Washington GPE and men like him.

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Due to his revolutionary ideals and military genius, Lovatur was hailed as the George Washington of the Haitian Revolution. But George Washington of the United States was not so supportive of the Haitian Revolution. Both Jefferson and Washington GPE expressed concerns about the influence of the Haitian Revolution. Both Jefferson and Washington expressed concerns about the influence of the Haitian Revolution on American NORP enslaved communities, fearing an uprising.

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Tucson, Low Butcher PERSON, recognized the United States as a sovereign state. Washington GPE did not return the courtesy to him. But what's interesting is that Washington really didn't comment publicly very much on events that revolved around enslavement.We have very little public comment about that. Politically, he thought it was an illegitimate revolution. He thought that it was a terrible situation. Personally, he donated a small amount of money to a fund for white refugees of the Haitian Revolution in Philadelphia GPE.

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In 1793, about 2,000 of these refugees, most of whom were French, arrived in Philadelphia GPE. There is no way to know for certain, but many in the ensuing years would blame this influx for what would soon become a crisis beyond the control of anyone in the United

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States. Dear Julia, since my letter to you of Friday, the fever has assumed a most alarming appearance. It not only mocks in most instances the power of medicine, but it has spread through

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several parts of the city remote from the spot it originated. This is a letter written by Benjamin Rush to his wife Julia PERSON. Rush was already a well-established and trusted doctor in Philadelphia GPE when yellow fever hit the city. It would quickly become one of the worst epidemics to spread throughout 18th century America GPE.

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This morning I witnessed a scene there, which reminded me of the histories of the plague. In one house, I lost two patients last night. Five other persons died in the neighborhood yesterday afternoon, and four more last night at Kensington FAC.

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Just a few days later, he wrote again to his wife,

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describing the nature of this yellow fever.

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Sometimes it comes on with a chilly fit and a high fever,

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but more frequently, it steals on with a headache, a languor, and a sick stomach. These symptoms are followed by a stupor, delirium, vomiting, a dry skin, cooler cold hands and feet, and a feeble slow pulse. The eyes are at first suffused with blood. They afterwards become yellow. And in most cases, a yellowness covers the whole skin on the third or fourth day.Livid spots on the body. A bleeding at the nose from the gums and from the boughs. And a vomiting of black matter in some instances closes the scene

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of life.

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In just four months, 4,000 people died in Philadelphia alone, at least 10% of the city's population.

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Nearly half fled the city.

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The disease quickly spread to New York, Boston GPE, and other major cities.

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The yellow fever hit Philadelphia just as the Whiskey Rebellion EVENT was at its height. Even the yellow fever became wrapped up in the partisan debates surrounding Jeunay PERSON. Those who wanted to continue trading with England blamed the yellow fever on French refugees from Haiti GPE and elsewhere. These were known as contagionists. Those who supported the French Revolution EVENT argue that the yellow fever had a local origin.Jeannet was, at this time, in New York GPE, with his political future uncertain and with no way to return to the now quarantined capital. Jeunay PERSON would wait out his days in suspense. Adams PERSON would later claim it was the yellow fever that cooled the revolutionary fervor, although other factors doubtless played a role as well. Nonetheless, the city came to a standstill as all efforts went to treating the ill and combating the spreadof the illness. The typical treatment for fevers at the time was a tonic made out of tree bar, specifically from various willow trees. It might sound old-fashioned, but the chemical component found in willow bar, Salison, forms the basis for modern aspirin. But this primitive pharmaceutical failed to treat the yellow fever. Other cures quickly popped up.Cold baths, vinegar wraps, bleedings, even heavy doses of wine. The Free African Society led efforts to treat the ill. Here is the account given by Absalom Jones PERSON.

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Early in September, a solicitation appeared in the public papers to the people of color to come forward and assist the distressed, perishing, and neglected sick, with a kind of assurance that people of our color were not liable to take the infection. Upon which we and a few others met and consulted how to act on so truly alarming and melancholy occasion. After some conversation, we found a freedom to go forth, sensible that it was our duty to do all the good we could to our suffering fellow mortals. Here it ought to be remarked that two-thirdsof the persons who rendered these essential services were people of color, who on the application of the elders of the African church were liberated on the condition of their doing the duty of nurses at the hospital

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at Bush Hill. Despite the heroic efforts of Jones, William Gray, Sarah Bass, Mary Scott PERSON, and many other African Americans NORP who put their lives in danger to care for the sick. Many accuse them of profiting off of the ill.

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We feel ourselves sensibly aggrieved by the censorious epitaphs of many who did not render the least assistance in the time of necessity, yet are liberal in their censor of us. For the prices paid for our services when no other knew how to make a proposal to anyone they wanted to assist them.

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The belief that African Americans NORP were immune to the yellow fever proved false, and soon it raged through their communities alongside the rest of Philadelphia GPE. Even Alexander Hamilton PERSON fell ill, although he and his wife would later recover. A difficult decision had to be made. Washington GPE may not have liked the prospect of abandoning the capital of the United States, even as thousands were fleeing the city. But on September 10th, 1793, Washington and his family evacuated to Germantown, Pennsylvania GPE.The Washington's would remain there for several months. By December of 1793, the yellow fever had left Philadelphia GPE. Washington GPE returned to the city. So did Jeunet PERSON. When Jeanne visited Congress ORG to make his final appeal, he told his French NORP superiors that he was ready to engage in mortal combat with his opponents. Although in reality,his speech failed to excite any strong reactions. Jeanne blamed Washington GPE's popularity for the lukewarm response. He believed congressmen were too scared of pushback if they went against the popular president. In reality, Jeunay PERSON had gone too far. After his outrageous disobedience of the Washington GPE administration, few in Congress wished to endorse the defiant Frenchman NORP.Washington formally asked Congress to submit the recall on December 5, 1793.

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It is with extreme concern, I have to inform you, that the proceedings of the person whom they have unfortunately appointed their minister have here breathed nothing of the friendly spirit of the nation which sent him. Their tendency has been to involve us in war abroad, discord, and anarchy at home.

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A month later, the French NORP government agreed. The Jacobin government had turned against Jeunet PERSON, complete. Not only was Jeunay PERSON still the target of incendiary pamphlets, but the French NORP had already identified him as a convenient scapegoat. The French badly needed American NORP food supplies to feed their army. Plus, there were some in the French government wishing to recall their own American NORP minister,a terse, eccentric founding father by the name of Governor Morris. Morris was the only American diplomat to remain in Paris GPE during the reign of terror. And he was seen by many as being a pro-British NORP agent. The idea of a recall must have been terrifying for Genet PERSON. Between September 1793 and July 1794, over 16,000 people in France GPE were executed in what is now known as the reign of terror.Marie Antoinette had lost her head in October. So does Jeanne PERSON's former mentor, Jacques Pierre Brissons. Washington's dear friend, the Marquis de la Fayette, once a hero of the French Revolution, was now imprisoned as an enemy of the same revolution. Genet PERSON must have known he would be next. Washington, too, understood Jeanne PERSON's fate should he return to France GPE.The guillotine. At this point, Jeanne had openly flouted Washington GPE's policy of neutrality. He ignored repeated warnings from Jefferson PERSON and others to cease his recruitment and privateering efforts. He had given Washington nothing more than headache after headache in one of the most embattled years of his presidency. No one likely would have blamed Washington for sending Jeunet back to France GPE.But to do so was to condemn Jeanne PERSON to death. Washington granted Jeanne PERSON mercy. Jeanne was granted political asylum and allowed to remain in the United States GPE. Edmund Jeanne, the young, idealistic man who had once been kicked out of Russia GPE for his revolutionary fervor and who had successfully sparked new out of Russia GPE for his revolutionary fervor and who had successfully sparked new life into the American revolutionary spirit, never returned to France GPE. He retired to a farmon the Hudson Bay River, where he married the daughter of the governor of New York GPE and never entered public life again. Washington GPE had averted another crisis. In March of the next year, Congress would finally pass the Neutrality Act of 1794, putting into law what Washington had proclaimed a year earlier. Vice President Adams had to cast the tie-breaking vote for the Senate ORG.But there were losses as well. In the summer of 1793, Thomas Jefferson PERSON announced his intention to retire from the cabinet. He claimed that he wished to return to a private life back at his plantation Monticello GPE. Washington visited Monticello convince Jefferson PERSON to stay. But Jefferson PERSON maintained that his retirement was born out of nothing more than a desire for a quiet life.

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Jefferson had wanted to retire as early as 1792. He didn't particularly like serving in the cabinet. He wanted to go home to Virginia. He started to disagree with some of the policies that Washington GPE was selecting. He especially disagreed with Hamilton's strong stance against France. And Washington GPE managed to keep him around for two additional years. He begged, he pleaded, he used all sorts of guilt trips to get him to stay.He felt that it was really essential to have those multiple perspectives. But by the end of 1793, Jefferson had had enough and retired on December 31st and went home to Virginia to start an

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opposition party. Too much damage perhaps had been done during the Jeunay PERSON affair. Jefferson PERSON had been strategically influencing popular newspapers to carry his Democratic Republican views for years now. Those views were beginning to create open conflict within the Washington GPE administration. His departure temporarily cooled tensions within Washington GPE's cabinet. Adams wrote to his wife Abigail PERSON.

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Jefferson went off yesterday and a good riddance of bad wear. I hope his temper will be more cool and his principles more reasonable in retirement than they have been in office. He has talents I know and integrity I believe. But his mind is now poisoned with passion, prejudice and faction. But Jefferson

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would not abstain from politics and his retirement from the cabinet signaled his preparation for a much bigger role down the line. That of President. But for now, the United States GPE successfully pursued a policy of neutralitythat kept the United States out of the European War EVENT. It allowed the American economy to continue to grow through trade with both Britain and France GPE. Most importantly, the Genet Affair set a vital precedent for the American NORP presidency.

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One of the things that's going on with the whole neutrality proclamation, what they come to realize is that you're going to need institutional support from the government if this is going to work. And one of the first ways that you see that happening, of course, is that the executive branch will become the leader in foreign policy and in diplomacy because of the president being commander in chief, because of the secretary of state, all of that. The foreign policy will tend to originate from the executive branch. And additionally, you're going to have to have branches within the government in the federalexecutive branch, like in the Treasury Department, U.S. GPE attorneys, people like that, you're going to have to activate those folks to have them actively reporting neutrality violations, prosecuting them, all of that. And so one, the executive branch becomes the leader in foreign policy. The act of requesting a recall of an ambassador, again, even today, it's a very, very sensitive issue. When you remove your ambassador from a country or you ask an ambassador to be removed, it's a really big deal. And so for the United States GPE to exercise that kind of authority, it's a major precedence,and it's also, again, the dominance of the executive branch in foreign affairs. And then eventually what you'll have happen is the Congress ORG will come on board with the neutrality proclamation. They'll actually codify it into law. And the courts will eventually come on board and start being a little more aggressive about prosecuting these cases.

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But while it was an important victory for the Washington GPE administration, the debate was far from over. Washington GPE's actions during the neutrality crisis inspired a new wave of confidence in his administration. But he also came under attack from one of the most vicious and persistent opponents he would face in the course of his presidency. The Press. Next episode on Ining the presidency, Washington GPE cultivates his public image, but he finds that the Jeffersonian NORP-supported newspapers are out for blood.And, in the wake of the Jeanné affair, Washington GPE becomes the target of political attacks on his foreign policy. Inventing the presidency is a production of the Mount Vernon Ladies Association and CD Squared Productions ORG. This episode was written and directed by Dr. Anne Fertig PERSON. Audio production was done by Kurt Dahl of CD squared ORG production. Production assistant was Jacob Cameron PERSON.Narration by Tom Plott PERSON. Additional voice acting by Dan Shippey, Matt Mattingly PERSON, James Ambusky PERSON, Nathaniel Kuhn, and Brett Poppice PERSON. Additional fact-checking was performed byDr. Alexandra Montgomery PERSON. We would like to thank our contributing scholars, Dr. Sandra Motes, Dr. Lindsay Trevinsky, and Remain Faneshro PERSON. To hear more great podcasts from Mount Vernon and the George Washington Presidential Library FAC, visit georgewashingtonpodcast.comor go to www.w.w.mptvernan.org.